Gaps between Attitudes and Behavior in the Use of Disposable Plastic Tableware (DPT) and Factors Influencing Sustainable DPT Consumption: A Study of Hong Kong Undergraduates

Total waste from human activities, including waste plastics, is huge in Hong Kong. In particular, as a result of the prevention and control measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic, take-away meals increased tremendously in Hong Kong, generating disposable plastic tableware (DPT). Although Hong Kong has a charging scheme for plastic bags, it does not have a scheme for plastic tableware. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the attitudes and behavior of people in Hong Kong toward DPT. Our study focused on undergraduate students in Hong Kong, given that they will play a significant role in the future of environmental sustainability. The attitudes and behavior of Hong Kong undergraduate students toward DPT were examined through an online survey with 385 respondents. A multiple stepwise regression was conducted to investigate whether cognitive attitude formation factors could explain the sustainable attitudes formed by undergraduate students in Hong Kong. The survey results revealed that most undergraduates considered DPT to be one of the major causes of environmental damage in Hong Kong;however, many of them, particularly those who strongly agreed with this statement, said that the problem of DPT did not affect their quality of life. The regression analysis showed that imposing a DPT charge would be the most significant driver to reduce its use. The research findings identified gaps between attitudes and behavior regarding the use of DPT and the factors influencing sustainable DPT consumption.

Material flow analysis-based assessment of polypropylene-fiber-containing microplastics released from disposable masks: Characterizing distribution in the environmental media.

With the upsurge in the use of disposable masks during the coronavirus disease pandemic, improper disposal of discarded masks and their negative impact on the environment have emerged as major issues. Improperly disposed of masks release various pollutants, particularly microplastic (MP) fibers, which can harm both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by interfering with the nutrient cycling, plant growth, and the health and reproductive success of organisms. This study assesses the environmental distribution of polypropylene (PP)-containing MPs, generated from disposable masks, using material flow analysis (MFA). The system flowchart is designed based on the processing efficiency of various compartments in the MFA model. The highest amount of MPs (99.7 %) is found in the landfill and soil compartments. A scenario analysis reveals that waste incineration significantly reduces the amount of MP transferred to landfills. Therefore, considering cogeneration and gradually increasing the incineration treatment rate are crucial to manage the processing load of waste incineration plants and minimize the negative impact of MPs on the environment. The findings provide insights into the potential environmental exposure associated with the improper disposal of waste masks and indicate strategies for sustainable mask disposal and management.

Implementation of jute-based nose holder in surgical masks to reduce plastic contamination.

Plastic, in all its forms, always harms the environment, humans, and other living organisms. The coronavirus situation exacerbates the use of plastic products more than at any other time, of which surgical masks contribute to plastic pollution the most. These masks spread to terrestrial and aquatic environments, where they break down into even more noxious microplastics. These microplastics enter the human food chain through water and fish, causing severe damage to the lungs, kidneys, and intestines and even causing death. In this paper, a jute nose holder mask was prepared as an alternative to typical masks to reduce plastic pollution. The jute nose holder was produced with a modified jute flyer-spinning frame machine, where jute was used as the sheath and metal wire was applied as the core component. The nose holder was later coated with starch-based natural gum. Then, the non-woven fabric of 75 grams per square meter (GSM), and the jute nose holder were used to produce the alternative, environmentally friendly mask, which might reduce the 773 tons of plastic waste generated daily from the nose holder of the mask. This alternative mask was then distributed to 900 people for a survey to find out their opinion. From the results of the survey, it is seen that 82.6% of people felt no problem in the nose when they put on the given mask. 85.6% considered the mask more comfortable than the traditional mask, and it was rated above average by 79.8% of the surveyors. So, this study suggests that the given mask can be a sustainable alternative to traditional masks.

Identification of microplastic fibres released from COVID-19 test swabs with Raman imaging.

Background: COVID-19 pandemic is not yet over, and it has been generating lots of plastic wastes that become a big concern. To catch the virus, for example, no matter via antigen or PCR test, swab is generally used for sampling. Unfortunately, the swab tip is commonly made of plastics, and thus it can be a potential source of microplastics. This study aims to propose and optimise several Raman imaging to identify the microplastic fibres released from different COVID-19 test swabs. Results: The results show that Raman imaging can effectively identify and visualise the microplastic fibres released from the swabs. In the meantime, on the surface of the fibres, additives such as titanium oxide particles are also captured for some brands of swabs. To increase the result certainty, scanning electron microscope (SEM) is first employed to get the morphology of the released microplastic fibres, along with Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to confirm the presence of titanium element. Then, Raman imaging is advanced to identify and visualise the microplastics and titanium oxide particles, from different characteristic peaks in the scanning spectrum matrix. To further increase the imaging certainty, these images can be merged and cross-checked using algorithms, or the raw data from the scanning spectrum matrix can be analysed and decoded via chemometrics, such as principal component analysis (PCA). Beyond the advantages, the disadvantages of the confocal Raman imaging (affected by focal height) and algorithms (non-supervised calculation) are also discussed and intentionally corrected. In brief, the imaging analysis (particularly the combined SEM with Raman) is recommended to avoid the possible result bias that might be generated from the single spectrum analysis at a selective but random position. Conclusions: Overall, the results indicate that Raman imaging can be a useful tool to detect microplastics. The results also send us a strong warning that, if we worry about the potential microplastics contamination, we should be cautious to select the suitable COVID-19 testing kits. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12302-023-00737-0.

Global face mask pollution: threats to the environment and wildlife, and potential solutions.

Face masks are an indispensable low-cost public healthcare necessity for containing viral transmission. After the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) became a pandemic, there was an unprecedented demand for, and subsequent increase in face mask production and use, leading to global ecological challenges, including excessive resource consumption and significant environmental pollution. Here, we review the global demand volume for face masks and the associated energy consumption and pollution potential throughout their life cycle. First, the production and distribution processes consume petroleum-based raw materials and other energy sources and release greenhouse gases. Second, most methods of mask waste disposal result in secondary microplastic pollution and the release of toxic gases and organic substances. Third, face masks discarded in outdoor environments represent a new plastic pollutant and pose significant challenges to the environment and wildlife in various ecosystems. Therefore, the long-term impacts on environmental and wildlife health aspects related to the production, use, and disposal of face masks should be considered and urgently investigated. Here, we propose five reasonable countermeasures to alleviate these global-scale ecological crises induced by mask use during and following the COVID-19 pandemic era: increasing public awareness; improving mask waste management; innovating waste disposal methods; developing biodegradable masks; and formulating relevant policies and regulations. Implementation of these measures will help address the pollution caused by face masks.

Impact of the COVID-19 face mask disposal on environment and perception of people of the Sultanate of Oman

Background: Environmental concerns are increasing in and around us due to improper discharge of personal protective gear or equipment (PPEs) during the current pandemic with SARS-CoV-2. The residents of Salalah, under the Dhofar governorate of Oman, were hastening to take every possible measure to safeguard their health against the COVID-19 pandemic. In this scenario, improper discard of facemasks in the environment entails a significant problem for public health and aquatic environments. Objective: This study aims to assess how the SARS-CoV-2 virus disrupted the household waste management chain in the Sultanate of Oman. In addition, descriptive survey has also identified people's perception about the existing household waste management system. Methods: Total 200 respondents were personally selected under the purposive sampling category. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26. The mean, standard deviation, and distribution shape were calculated based on the retrieved data. The variables and frequencies were tabulated for categorical variables. Results show negative impacts on the environment, wildlife, and public health. It was also observed that there was a significant difference when grouped according to residence location since the obtainedalso observed a significant difference when grouped according to residence location since the p-value of 0.007 was less than 0.05 alpha level. This means that the responses differ significantly. It shows from the test conducted that participants from the village experienced and observed a negative impact on the discarded face masks compared to those in the city. Conclusion and recommendation: This study illustrates the real impact of the COVID-19 face masks on the environment, wildlife, and public health. In addition, the new management of the user's face masks for eliminating or reducing the risks to human health and the environment has been suggested.

Microplastics/nanoplastics released from facemasks as contaminants of emerging concern.

Facemasks have become a global medical necessity and are a key preventive measure against COVID-19. Typically, facemasks (FMs) are fabricated from non-renewable polymers, particularly polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE), which release secondary microplastic (MPs) due to the chemical, physical, and biological processes. In light of the widespread usage and improper disposal of single-use facemasks, there is concern about their environmental impact since they contribute to plastic pollution during and after pandemics. The repercussions of this have led to millions of tons of plastic waste being dumped into the environment. Due to lack of awareness and improper disposal, the occurrence of micro/nanoplastics released from facemasks in wastewater treatment plants and landfills poses a concern. Infiltration of wastewater treatment processes by micro/nanoplastics at various levels can be problematic because of their chemical nature and broad but small size. Thus, operational and process stability issues can arise during wastewater treatment processes. In addition, landfilling and illegal waste disposal are being used to dispose of potentially infectious COVID-19 waste, leading to an environmental threat to animal and human health and exacerbating plastic pollution. This paper reviews the fate of facemasks in the environment and the repercussions of improper waste management of facemasks in wastewater treatment plants, landfills, and ultimately the environment.

Short-Term Microplastic Exposure Impairs Cognition in Hermit Crabs.

We tested whether acute microplastic exposure impacts information gathering and processing (cognition) in hermit crabs (Pagurus bernhardus). For five days, we kept 51 hermit crabs in tanks containing either polyethylene microspheres (n = 27) or no plastic (n = 24). We then transferred individuals into an intermediate-quality shell and presented them with two vials containing either a better or worse shell. Because touching both shell vials required an equivalent behavioural response, this design controlled for general activity. Plastic-exposed hermit crabs were less likely and slower than controls to touch the better shell vial, instead preferring the worse shell vial. Microplastics, therefore, impaired assessments and decision-making, providing direct evidence of acute microplastic exposure disrupting hermit crab cognition.

Microplastics in the Ecosystem: An Overview on Detection, Removal, Toxicity Assessment, and Control Release

In recent decades, the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics on the surface of the planet have caused several long-term climatic and health risks. Plastic materials, specifically microplastics (MPs;sizes < 5 mm), have gained significant interest in the global scientific fraternity due to their bioaccumulation, non-biodegradability, and ecotoxicological effects on living organisms. This study explains how microplastics are generated, transported, and disposed of in the environment based on their sources and physicochemical properties. Additionally, the study also examines the impact of COVID-19 on global plastic waste production. The physical and chemical techniques such as SEM-EDX, PLM, FTIR, Raman, TG-DSC, and GC-MS that are employed for the quantification and identification of MPs are discussed. This paper provides insight into conventional and advanced methods applied for microplastic removal from aquatic systems. The finding of this review helps to gain a deeper understanding of research on the toxicity of microplastics on humans, aquatic organisms, and soil ecosystems. Further, the efforts and measures that have been enforced globally to combat MP waste have been highlighted and need to be explored to reduce its potential risk in the future. © 2022 by the authors.

Disposable face masks release micro particles to the aqueous environment after simulating sunlight aging: Microplastics or non-microplastics?

This study focuses on characterizing microplastics and non-microplastics released from surgical masks (SMs), N95 masks (N95), KN95 masks (KN95), and children's masks (CMs) after simulating sunlight aging. Based on micro-Raman spectrum analysis, it was found that the dominant particles released from masks were non-microplastics (66.76–98.85%). Unfortunately, CMs released the most microplastics, which is 8.92 times more than SMs. The predominant size range of microplastics was 30–500 µm, and the main polymer types were PP and PET. Compared with the whole SMs, the microplastic particles released from the cutting-SMs increased conspicuously, which is 12.15 times that of the whole SMs. The main components of non-microplastics include β-carotene, microcrystalline cellulose 102, and eight types of minerals. Furthermore, non-microplastics were mainly fibrous and fragmented in appearance, similar to the morphology of microplastics. After 15 days of UVA-aging, the fibers of the face layers had cracks to varying degrees. It was estimated that these four types of masks can release at least 31.5 trillion microplastics annually in China. Overall, this study demonstrated that the masks could release a large quantity of microplastics and non-microplastics to the environment after sunlight aging, deserving urgent attention in the future study. © 2022 Elsevier B.V.

Direct and Indirect Impacts of Disposable Face Masks and Gloves on Freshwater Benthic Fauna and Sediment Biogeochemistry

To reduce virus transmission, the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) increased substantially during the COVID-19 global pandemic. As a result, disposable face masks and gloves made from plastic polymers rapidly entered the environment, with little understanding of ecological impacts. Many plastic polymers sink to the bottom of freshwater bodies, either immediately or following biofouling and degradation, posing a potential risk to the benthos. We assessed the acute and chronic ecotoxicity of disposable polypropylene face masks and nitrile gloves on Lumbriculus variegatus, a benthic ecosystem engineer. In microcosm experiments, we also investigated direct impacts on sediment biogeochemistry and indirect impacts mediated by toxicity to L. variegatus. Exposure to fragments of both masks and gloves decreased vitality of L. variegatus. Gloves were acutely toxic, but mask toxicity was mediated by physical interactions. Glove fragments significantly decreased nitrogen removal and phosphorus release to the water column. Both materials suppressed the ecosystem engineering role of L. variegatus by decreasing its impact on microalgal primary production, net ecosystem metabolism, and sediment nitrate consumption. The influx of PPE to the environment may have profound and cascading negative impacts on benthic organisms and ecosystem function, suggesting the need for improved management of PPE litter. © 2022 American Chemical Society.

Lifetime prediction of non-woven face masks in ocean and contributions to microplastics and dissolved organic carbon

This study explored the degradation behavior of three types of disposable face masks in simulated seawater via the accelerated aging experiments. Microplastics (MPs) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were monitored in UV- and thermal-treated mask suspensions and their concentrations increased slowly in the early stage at 50 ℃ and 58 ℃. Owing to the high energy supply, the release rates of MPs and DOC at 76 ℃ were much faster than the above two temperatures. The time-temperature superposition principle (TTSP) was used to superpose the MPs/DOC release kinetics from other tested temperatures to the reference temperature and its applicability was verified by the similar activation energy. Then, a release kinetics model was established and fitted well with the superposed MP data (R2 ≥ 0.96). Since less than 0.1 % of carbon was leached, the superposed DOC data was roughly modelled by the exponential function (R2 ≥ 0.90). According to the TTSP and the established kinetics models, about 15 years were estimated to decompose half of a certain marine mask waste, together with leaching 0.21 ± 0.02 mg∙g-mask−1 of DOC. If mask consumption remains the same before 2025, they would contribute 40000–230000 tonnes of MPs and 13–97 tonnes of DOC to the ocean by 2040. © 2022

Interactive adverse effects of low-density polyethylene microplastics on marine microalga Chaetoceros calcitrans.

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is broadly utilized worldwide, increasing more dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the majority ends up in the aquatic environment as microplastics. The influence of polyethylene microplastics (LDPE-MPs) on aquatic ecosystems still needs further investigation, especially on microalgae as typical organisms represented in all aquatic systems and at the base of the trophic chain. Thereby, the biological and toxicity impacts of LDPE-MPs on Chaetoceros calcitrans were examined in this work. The results revealed that LDPE-MPs had a concentration-dependent adverse effect on the growth and performance of C. calcitrans. LDPE-MPs contributed the maximum inhibition rates of 85%, 51.3%, 21.49% and 16.13% on algal growth chlorophyll content, φPSII and Fv/Fm, respectively. The total protein content, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) activities were significantly increased at 25 mg L-1 LDPE-MPs by 1.37, 3.52, 2.75 and 1.84 folds higher than those of the controls to sustain the adverse effects of LDPE-MPs. Extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) and monosaccharides contents of C. calcitrans were improved under low concentration of LDPE-MPs, which could facilitate the adsorption of MPs particles on the microalgae cell wall. This adsorption caused significant physical damage to the algal cell structure, as observed by SEM. These results suggest that the ecological footprint of MPs may require more attention, particularly due to the continuing breakdown of plastics in the ecosystem.

A review on the effect of micro- and nano-plastics pollution on the emergence of antimicrobial resistance

The recent upsurge in the studies on micro/nano plastics and antimicrobial resistance genes has proven their deleterious effects on the environmental and human health. Till-date, there is a scarcity of studies on the in-teractions of these two factors and their combined influence. The interaction of microplastics has led to the formation of new plastics namely plastiglomerates, pyroplastics. and anthropoquinas. It has long been ignored that the occurrence of microplastics has become a breeding ground for the emergence of antimicrobial resistance genes. Evidently microplastics are also associated with the occurrence of other pollutants such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons and pesticides. The increased use of antibiotics (after Covid breakout) has further elevated the detrimental effects on human health. Therefore, this study highlights the relation of microplastics with antibiotic resistance generation. The factors such as uncontrolled use of antibiotics and negligent plastic consumption has been evaluated. Furthermore, the future research prospective was provided that can be helpful in correctly identifying the seriousness of the environmental occurrence of these pollutants.

Multigenerational effects of microplastic fragments derived from polyethylene terephthalate bottles on duckweed Lemna minor: Size-dependent effects of microplastics on photosynthesis.

The 2019 global coronavirus disease pandemic has led to an increase in the demand for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) packaging. Although PET is one of the most recycled plastics, it is likely to enter the aquatic ecosystem. To date, the chronic effects of PET microplastics (MPs) on aquatic plants have not been fully understood. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the adverse effects of PET MP fragments derived from PET bottles on the aquatic duckweed plant Lemna minor through a multigenerational study. We conducted acute (3-day exposure) and multigenerational (10 generations from P0 to F9) tests using different-sized PET fragments (PET0-200, < 200 µm; PET200-300, 200-300 µm; and PET300-500, 300-500 µm). Different parameters, including frond number, growth rate based on the frond area, total root length, longest root length, and photosynthesis, were evaluated. The acute test revealed that photosynthesis in L. minor was negatively affected by exposure to small-sized PET fragments (PET0-200). In contrast, the results of the multigenerational test revealed that large-sized PET fragments (PET300-500) showed substantial negative effects on both the growth and photosynthetic activity of L. minor. Continuous exposure to PET MPs for 10 generations caused disturbances in chloroplast distribution and inhibition of plant photosynthetic activity and growth. The findings of this study may serve as a basis for future research on the generational effects of MPs from various PET products.

Environmental Policy for the Restriction on the Use of Plastic Products in Taiwan: Regulatory Measures, Implementation Status and COVID-19's Impacts on Plastic Products Recycling

In response to international trends regarding the reduction in plastic waste (or plastic pollution), this work used the official statistics that were recently released, focusing on regulatory actions restricting the use of plastic products and/or the increase in recycling in Taiwan. In addition, the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on plastic waste generation and plastic products' recycling were also addressed in the present study. The results showed that the plastic compositions in the garbage slightly increased in recent years, suggesting that the effect of restrictions on the use of plastic products in Taiwan was not significant, even though the regulatory measures have been implemented since 2002. However, chlorine contents in the garbage were significantly increased in 2020. The increase could be attributed to the fact that kitchen waste (containing salt), household waste containing disinfectant (e.g., chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite) or PVC-made products were generated more during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the data also indicated that the monthly quantities of recycled plastic containers and other plastic products had no significant change since January 2020, especially in the outbreak period from May 2021 to July 2021.

Polypropylene nanoplastic exposure leads to lung inflammation through p38-mediated NF-κB pathway due to mitochondrial damage.

BACKGROUND: Polypropylene (PP) is used in various products such as disposable containers, spoons, and automobile parts. The disposable masks used for COVID-19 prevention mainly comprise PP, and the disposal of such masks is concerning because of the potential environmental pollution. Recent reports have suggested that weathered PP microparticles can be inhaled, however, the inhalation toxicology of PP microparticles is poorly understood. RESULTS: Inflammatory cell numbers, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and the levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in PP-instilled mice (2.5 or 5 mg/kg) increased significantly compared to with those in the control. Histopathological analysis of the lung tissue of PP-stimulated mice revealed lung injuries, including the infiltration of inflammatory cells into the perivascular/parenchymal space, alveolar epithelial hyperplasia, and foamy macrophage aggregates. The in vitro study indicated that PP stimulation causes mitochondrial dysfunction including mitochondrial depolarization and decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels. PP stimulation led to cytotoxicity, ROS production, increase of inflammatory cytokines, and cell deaths in A549 cells. The results showed that PP stimulation increased the p-p38 and p-NF-κB protein levels both in vivo and in vitro, while p-ERK and p-JNK remained unchanged. Interestingly, the cytotoxicity that was induced by PP exposure was regulated by p38 and ROS inhibition in A549 cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that PP stimulation may contribute to inflammation pathogenesis via the p38 phosphorylation-mediated NF-κB pathway as a result of mitochondrial damage.

Direct and Indirect Impacts of Disposable Face Masks and Gloves on Freshwater Benthic Fauna and Sediment Biogeochemistry

To reduce virus transmission, the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) increased substantially during the COVID-19 global pandemic. As a result, disposable face masks and gloves made from plastic polymers rapidly entered the environment, with little understanding of ecological impacts. Many plastic polymers sink to the bottom of freshwater bodies, either immediately or following biofouling and degradation, posing a potential risk to the benthos. We assessed the acute and chronic ecotoxicity of disposable polypropylene face masks and nitrile gloves on Lumbriculus variegatus, a benthic ecosystem engineer. In microcosm experiments, we also investigated direct impacts on sediment biogeochemistry and indirect impacts mediated by toxicity to L. variegatus. Exposure to fragments of both masks and gloves decreased vitality of L. variegatus. Gloves were acutely toxic, but mask toxicity was mediated by physical interactions. Glove fragments significantly decreased nitrogen removal and phosphorus release to the water column. Both materials suppressed the ecosystem engineering role of L. variegatus by decreasing its impact on microalgal primary production, net ecosystem metabolism, and sediment nitrate consumption. The influx of PPE to the environment may have profound and cascading negative impacts on benthic organisms and ecosystem function, suggesting the need for improved management of PPE litter.